Background to the Research

• This research was commissioned by Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister on behalf of the NI Domestic Violence Forum.
• The research arose as a response to a perceived gap in the current provision of support available for men in abusive partner relationships.
• Previously, the attention of local government and agencies has centered upon females as victims and males as perpetrators of domestic violence, despite anecdotal evidence from voluntary agencies and police statistics that males were also being victimized.
• This study was groundbreaking by providing insights into men's experience as victims of domestic violence in NI.
  

Research Approach

• The report includes a review of the relevant Anglo-American literature on male partner victimization. Early feminist studies focused upon spousal abuse within the context of patriarchal power and gender relationships. In contrast, family violence studies suggested that the dynamics underlying and driving violence were considerably more complex.
• The authors also examine the impact that the research methodology has had upon the research outcomes.
• On reflection, the authors opted for a qualitative methodology, which they considered to be the most effective method for investigating the nature of male victimization within a domestic context.
• A self selected sample of 52 men was recruited via numerous methods within a number of agencies to participate in this ethnographic study.
• The ages of the participants ranged between 29 to 60 years of age. The mean age upon entering the relationships in question was 26 years and the average length of the relationships was 13 years.
• The sample was considered to be fairly representative of the wider NI male population in terms of a number of key characteristics.
• The aim of the study was to understand the individual's experience of domestic violence through a qualitative narrative obtained during a semi-structured interview.
• It was not designed to measure the incidence or prevalence of violence against men by their female partners.
• Three of the participants described their experiences of abusive gay relationships and two discussed their mother's abusive and violent behaviour towards their father.
  

Main Findings

Components of abuse

• The violence inflicted involved verbal, physical and sexual abuse. The installation of fear and the use of weapons in spontaneous and creative ways assisted females in overcoming the male's superior physical strength.
• Participants felt that the emotional abuse was the most damaging, especially when children were witness to it. Children, especially male children, were frequently abused as well.
• The restriction or withdrawal of financial resources and sleep deprivation was reported as was the destruction of household property.
• In a few cases, female partners were alleged to have made false allegations of abuse as a way of gaining the dominant position within the household.

Effects of abuse

• Victims cited the long term emotional abuse they had suffered to be the most damaging.
• Its cumulative effects resulted in suicide attempts by two individuals.
• It also had a detrimental impact upon the person's career and income. It had reduced their levels of attendance and productivity and also placed them under additional stress to conceal their abusive relationship from colleagues.
• Material losses included personal possessions as well exclusion from the family home.
• Only a small minority of the participants reported that the courts were receptive to the idea of the male victim of domestic violence. The majority perceived that the legal system existed to benefit their female partners and did not offer any protection to those wrongly accused.
• Victims found that their children also suffered greatly at the hands of their abusive partners, which in turn, increased their levels of trauma and anxiety.
• The impact of previous violent relationships on future relationships was mixed. While some found it very difficult to establish new relationships, others found the new experience to be cathartic.

Management of abuse

• A variety of different coping strategies were reported by the interviewees.
• In the majority of cases, attempts were made to conceal the abuse from the outside world, either to protect their masculine identity or out of embarrassment. In some cases, they would injure themselves to conceal their bruises etc.
• Cognitive coping strategies included the use of normalisation techniques, in which they told themselves that the behaviour would stop in time.
• Behavioural techniques included the consumption of alcohol, using physical exercise or spending more time at their jobs as a distraction from their problems at home.
• Others sought support from trusted friends as well as their GP's and the Police.
• Ultimately, the majority of the respondents had terminated their abusive relationships. This was either as a result of a choice made by either party or through sheer exhaustion.

Contribution of masculine stereotypes

• Patriarchal beliefs have consequences for the victims self image, can influence the distribution of power within a relationship and ultimately may influence the nature of the abuse.
• One person felt that it was socially acceptable for females to aggressively or violently challenge patriarchal domination.
• When respondents considered the question of inequalities of power within their relationships, many felt, paradoxically, that controlling their impulse to react to female aggression served to strengthen their self image.
• Males who maintained such beliefs perceived their partners refusal to fulfil their traditional household duties as abusive behaviour.
• Stereotypical beliefs, particularly those perpetuated by the media about male physical strength, continue to perpetuate disbelief in the existence of male victimisation.
• Many felt that the public exposure of violence against females had perpetuated an attitude in which the female was "invariably assumed to be right and the man assumed to be wrong". (p57).

Agency reactions

• The interviewees claimed that Social Services responded to their allegations of abuse by either viewing them suspiciously or collaborating with their abusive partner.
• Police Officers were unanimously viewed as acting in a biased way towards male victims. They attributed this to practice and legislative developments in favour of the female victim and male perpetrator.
• Support from medical practitioners was derived at an individual rather than an institutional level. At best, a referral to a counselling organisation was made.
• Once again, allegations made to legal professionals were met with scepticism and comments about the hopeless pursuit about challenging attitudes were made.
• Churches were perceived to be generally unhelpful and reluctant to intervene.
• Many highlighted the lack of recognition of their plight from voluntary agencies. Whilst a few resorted to contacting Women's Aid, they felt that their disclosure was met with a failure to acknowledge that females could also be perpetrators of domestic violence as well.
• There are no existing programmes for female perpetrators of domestic violence. None of the partners were reported as trying to seek help.

Gay victims

• The authors discuss the methodological and theoretical difficulties in relation to this under researched area.
• Homophobic attitudes may contribute to the lack of public acknowledgement about this serious issue.
• Alternatively, gay communities may be reluctant to discuss such problems, fearing that it might perpetuate negative attitudes toward homosexual relationships.

Conclusions

• Section five includes recommendations as to how services for male victims of domestic violence should be developed with regard to the above themes.
• They advocate that research into the extent and context of male victimisation be undertaken.